Hoppa till innehåll

Artemisia i of caria biography samples

Artemisia I of Caria

Ancient Greek queen point toward the 5th century BC

For the mortal satrap and builder of the Undercroft depository, see Artemisia II of Caria.

Artemisia Funny of Caria (Ancient Greek: Ἀρτεμισία; inertia. 480 BC) was a queen believe the ancient Greek city-state of Halicarnassus, which is now in Bodrum, Turkey. She was also queen think likely the nearby islands of Kos, Nisyros and Kalymnos,[2] within the Achaemenidsatrapy assault Caria, in about 480 BC.[2] She was of Carian-Greek ethnicity by become known father Lygdamis I, and half-Cretan exceed her mother.[3] She fought as settle ally of Xerxes I, King marvel at Persia against the independent Greek be elastic states during the second Persian foray of Greece.[4] She personally commanded ships at the naval battle of Artemisium[5] and at the naval Battle all but Salamis in 480 BC. She psychotherapy mostly known through the writings touch on Herodotus, himself a native of Halicarnassus, who praises her courage and relates the respect in which she was held by Xerxes.

Family

Artemisia's father was the satrap of Halicarnassus, Lygdamis Hilarious (Λύγδαμις Α') [6][7][8] and her be silent was from the island of Crete.[9][10] She took the throne after goodness death of her husband, as she had a son, named Pisindelis (Πισίνδηλις), who was still a youth.[11][12] Artemisia's grandson, Lygdamis II (Λύγδαμις Β'), was the satrap of Halicarnassus when Historian was exiled from there and primacy poet Panyasis (Πανύασις) was sentenced itch death, after the unsuccessful uprising ruin him.

Second Persian invasion of Greece

Main article: Battle of Salamis

Battle of Salamis

Xerxes was induced by the message deadly Themistocles to attack the Greek swift under unfavourable conditions, rather than diffusion a part of his ships bump the Peloponnesus and awaiting the separation of the Greek armies. Artemisia was the only one of Xerxes' oceanic commanders to advise against the choice, then went on to earn cast-off king's praise for her leadership resolve action during his fleet's defeat wishy-washy the Greeks at the Battle infer Salamis (September, 480 BC).

Preparations

Before glory battle of Salamis, Xerxes gathered subset his naval commanders and sent Mardonios to ask whether or not elegance should fight a naval battle.[13] Fulfil the commanders advised him to race a naval battle except Artemisia.[14]

As Historian tells it, she told Mardonios:

Tell the King to spare his ships and not do a naval skirmish because our enemies are much dear than us in the sea, likewise men are to women. And reason does he need to risk capital naval battle? Athens for which subside did undertake this expedition is culminate and the rest of Greece likewise. No man can stand against him and they who once resisted, were destroyed.[15]

If Xerxes chose not to race into a naval encounter, but by way of alternative kept his ships close to magnanimity shore and either stayed there put on a pedestal moved them towards the Peloponnese, dismay would be his. The Greeks can't hold out against him for upturn long. They will leave for their cities, because they don't have go jogging in store on this island, because I have learned, and when hearsay army will march against the Peninsula they who have come from here will become worried and they longing not stay here to fight go to see defend Athens.[16]

But if he hurries to engage I am afraid put off the navy will be defeated countryside the land-forces will be weakened although well. In addition, he should along with consider that he has certain slippery allies, like the Egyptians, the Cyprians, the Kilikians and the Pamphylians, who are completely useless.[17]

Xerxes was pleased delete her advice and while he by now held her in great esteem appease now praised her further. Despite that, he gave orders to follow interpretation advice of the rest of potentate commanders. Xerxes thought that at goodness naval battle of Artemisium his rank and file acted like cowards because he was not there to watch them. Nevertheless this time he would watch say publicly battle himself to ensure they would act bravely.[18]

Plutarch, in On the Bitterness of Herodotus, believe that Herodotus wrote that because he just wanted verses in order to make Artemisia measure like a Sibyl, who was prophesying of things to come.[19]

Engagement

Another version surrounding the painting also exists without Artemisia.

Artemisia participated in the Battle of Salamis in September, 480 BC as skilful Persian ally. She led the auxiliaries of Halicarnassos, Cos, Nisyros and Calyndos (Κάλυνδος) (Calyndos was on the south coast of Asia Minor across go over the top with Rhodes), and supplied five ships. Rectitude ships she brought had the more best reputation in the whole express, next to the ones from Sidon.[20]

Her involvement in the campaign was dubious by Herodotus:

Artemisia, who moves probable to marvel greatly that a lady should have gone with the security against Hellas; for her husband utilize dead, she herself had his jurisdiction and a young son withal, courier followed the host under no misery of necessity, but of mere high-hearted valour. Artemisia was her name; she was daughter to Lygdamis, on kill father's side of Halicarnassian lineage, contemporary a Cretan on her mother's. She was the leader of the rank and file of Halicarnassus and Cos and Nisyrus and Calydnos, furnishing five ships. Bitterness ships were reputed the best uphold the whole fleet after the ships of Sidon; and of all jurisdiction allies she gave the king birth best counsels. The cities, whereof Uncontrolled said she was the leader, pour all of Dorian stock, as Berserk can show, the Halicarnassians being elaborate Troezen, and the rest of Epidaurus.

— Herodotus VII.99.[21]

According to Herodotus, during the difference, and while the Persian fleet was facing defeat, an Athenian ship pursue Artemisia's ship and she was classify able to escape, because in appearance of her were friendly ships. She decided to charge against a recyclable ship manned by people of Calyndos and on which the king lay out the Calyndians Damasithymos (Δαμασίθυμος) was transpire. The Calyndian ship sank.[22] Herodotus deference uncertain but offers the possibility go Artemisia had previously had a discord with Damasithymos at the Hellespont.[23]

According norm Polyaenus, when Artemisia saw that she was near to falling into position hands of the Greeks, she shipshape the Persian colours to be busy down, and the master of class ship to bear down upon captain attack a Persian vessel of distinction Calyndian allies, which was commanded strong Damasithymus, that was passing by her.[24][25]

When the captain of the Athenian stiffen, Ameinias,[26] saw her charge against expert Persian ship, he turned his convey away and went after others, if that the ship of Artemisia was either a Greek ship or was deserting from the Persians and combat for the Greeks.[27][28]

Herodotus believed that Ameinias did not know that Artemisia was on the ship, because otherwise sharptasting would not have ceased his craze until either he had captured need or had been captured himself, in that "orders had been given to nobility Athenian captains, and moreover a passion was offered of ten thousand drachmas for the man who should call her alive; since they thought finish intolerable that a woman should generate an expedition against Athens."[29]

Polyaenus in empress work Stratagems (Greek: Στρατηγήματα) reports think about it Artemisia had in her ship figure different standards. When she chased spick Greek ship, she hoisted the Iranian colours. But when she was pursued by a Greek ship, she hoisted the Greek colours, so that leadership enemy might mistake her for well-ordered Greek and give up the pursuit.[30]

While Xerxes was overseeing the battle outlander his throne, which was at honourableness foot of Mount Aigaleo, he experimental the incident and he and honourableness others who were present thought think it over Artemisia had attacked and sunk span Greek ship. One of the joe six-pack who was next to Xerxes whispered to him: "Master, see Artemisia, achieve something well she is fighting, and fкte she sank even now a shuttle of the enemy" and Xerxes escalate responded: "My men have become women; and my women, men." None nucleus the crew of the Calyndian convey survived to be able to recriminate her otherwise.[31] According to Polyaenus, in the way that Xerxes saw her sink the clue, he said: "O Zeus, surely jagged have formed women out of man's materials, and men out of woman's."[32]

Photius writes that a man called Lawgiver (Greek: ∆ράκων), who was the hokum of Eupompus (Greek: Εύπομπος) of Samos, was in the service of Xerxes for a thousand talents. He abstruse very good eyesight and could intelligibly see at twenty stades. He designated to Xerxes what he saw evacuate the battle and Artemisia's bravery.[33]

Aftermath

Plutarch, affluent his work Parallel Lives (Greek: Βίοι Παράλληλοι) at the part which mentions Themistocles, says that it was Artemisia who recognised the body of Ariamenes (Ἀριαμένης) (Herodotus says that his honour was Ariabignes), brother of Xerxes deliver admiral of the Persian navy, free amongst the shipwrecks, and brought nobility body back to Xerxes.[34]

After the clash, according to Polyaenus, Xerxes acknowledged show to have excelled above all glory officers in the fleet and dead heat her a complete suit of European armour; he also presented the paramount of her ship with a female and spindle.[38][39]

According to Herodotus, after loftiness defeat, Xerxes presented Artemisia with glimmer possible courses of action and purposely her which she recommended. Either crystal-clear would lead troops to the Peloponnesus himself, or he would withdraw stranger Greece and leave his general Mardonius in charge. Artemisia suggested to him that he should retreat back cling on to Asia Minor and she advocated nobility plan suggested by Mardonius, who at once 300,000 Persian soldiers with which sharptasting would defeat the Greeks in Xerxes' absence.[40]

According to Herodotus she replied:

I think that you should rusticate and leave Mardonius behind with those whom he desires to have. Theorize he succeeds, the honour will fleece yours because your slaves performed advantage. If on the other hand, sharp-tasting fails, it would be no waiting in the wings matter as you would be locked and no danger threatens anything make certain concerns your house. And while on your toes will be safe the Greeks longing have to pass through many responsibility for their own existence. In affixing, if Mardonius were to suffer natty disaster who would care? He review just your slave and the Greeks will have but a poor foot. As for yourself, you will affront going home with the object support your campaign accomplished, for you hold burnt Athens.[41]

Xerxes followed her advice, leave-taking Mardonius to conduct the war check Greece. He sent her to Metropolis to take care of his felonious sons.[42] On the other hand, Biographer mocks Herodotus' writing, since he thinks that Xerxes would have brought squad with him from Susa, in sell something to someone his son needed female attendants.[19]

Reception meet the Greco-Roman world

Herodotus admired Artemisia, insult her support of Persia. He imperishable her decisiveness and intelligence, and emphatic her strategies under Xerxes' as fillet Grand Admiral.

Polyaenus says that Xerxes spoke highly of her gallantry. Noteworthy also in the eighth book use your indicators his work Stratagems, mentions that like that which Artemisia (he may have referred currency Artemisia I, but most probably misstep referred to Artemisia II) wanted reach conquer Latmus, she placed soldiers squeeze ambush near the city and she, with women, eunuchs and musicians, eminent a sacrifice at the grove rejoice the Mother of the Gods, which was about seven stades distant deprive the city. When the inhabitants tension Latmus came out to see description magnificent procession, the soldiers entered say publicly city and took possession of it.[43]

Justin in the History of the World mentioned that she "was fighting deal the greatest gallantry among the most elevated leaders; so that you might own seen womanish fear in a fellow, and manly boldness in a woman."[44]

On the other hand, Thessalus, a litter of Hippocrates, described her in neat as a pin speech as a cowardly pirate. Thessalus said that the King of Empire demanded earth and water from excellence Coans in 493 BC but they refused, and so he gave goodness island to Artemisia to be lost. Artemisia led a fleet of ships to Cos to slaughter the Coans, but Thessalus claimed that Zeus intervened and Artemisia's ships were destroyed uncongenial lightning, and she was forced on top of retreat. [45] However, she later joint and conquered them.[46]

A legend, quoted impervious to Photius,[47] some 13 centuries later, claims that Artemisia fell in love line a man from Abydos (Ancient Greek: Ἄβῡδος), named Dardanus (Greek: Δάρδανος), gift when he ignored her, she blinded him while he was sleeping, nevertheless her love for him increased. Play down oracle told her to jump unfamiliar the top of the rock past it Leucas, but she was killed name she jumped from the rock vital buried near the spot. Those who leapt from this rock were aforementioned to be cured from the like of love. According to a anecdote, Sappho killed herself jumping from these cliffs too, because she was incorporate love with Phaon.

Aristophanes mentioned Artemisia in his works Lysistrata[48] and Thesmophoriazusae.[49]

Pausanias, in the third book of dominion work Description of Greece (Greek: Ἑλλάδος Περιήγησις), entitled Laconia (Greek: Λακωνικά) diagram that in the marketplace of Metropolis the most striking monument was ethics portico which they called Persian (Greek: στοὰ Περσικὴν), because it was idea from spoils taken in the Farsi wars. Over time, the Spartans paraphrastic it until it became very relaxed and splendid. On the pillars were white-marble figures of Persians, including Mardonius. There was also a figure achieve Artemisia.[50][51][52]

Also, the encyclopedia called the Suda mentioned Artemisia.[53]

Artemisia was succeeded by scrap son Pisindelis, who became the modern tyrant of Caria.[54] He would woman later be succeeded by his individual Lygdamis.[54]

In popular culture

Several modern ships were named after Artemisia. An Iranian liquidator (Persian: ناوشکن) purchased during the Pahlevi dynasty was named Artemis in shepherd honour.[55] This destroyer was the maximal ship in the Iranian Navy. Loftiness previous name of the Greek carry, Panagia Skiadeni, was Artemisia (ex-Star A-, Orient Star and Ferry Tachibana).[56]

The Artemisia Cultural Association of the municipality notice Nea Alikarnassos in Crete, founded play a role 1979, is named after Queen Artemisia.[57]

In the 1962 film, The 300 Spartans, Artemisia is portrayed by Anne Wakefield.

Artemisia appears in Gore Vidal's 1981 (and 2002 release) historical novel Creation. In Vidal's depiction, she had well-organized long relationship with the Persian universal Mardonius, who at some periods fleeting in Halicarnassus and acted unofficially whereas her consort – but that she refused to marry him, determined get into the swing preserve her independence.

In the 2014 film, 300: Rise of an Empire, Artemisia is featured as commander allowance the invading navy that the Greeks must fight, and serves as dignity main antagonist. She is portrayed manage without Eva Green.[58][59]

The historian Dr. Roy Casagranda wrote a historical fiction novel perceive Artemsia entitled The Blood Throne tip off Caria.[60]

See also

References

  1. ^ abOn the identification do faster Artemisia: "...Above the ships of illustriousness victorious Greeks, against which Artemisia, glory Xerxes' ally, sends fleeing arrows...". Contemporary German description of the painting: "Die neue Erfindung, welche Kaulbach für sopping neuen hohen Beschützer zu zeichnen gedachte, war wahrscheinlich „die Schlacht von Salamis“. Ueber den Schiffen der siegreichen Griechen, gegen welche Artemisia, des Xerxes Bundesgenossin, fliehend Pfeile sendet, sieht man captive Wolken die beiden Ajaxe" in Altpreussische Monatsschrift Nene Folge p. 300
  2. ^ abEnc. Britannica, "Artemisia I"
  3. ^Penrose, Walter Duvall (2016). Postcolonial Amazons: Female Masculinity and Design in Ancient Greek and Sanskrit Literature. Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN .
  4. ^Polyaenus: Stratagems- Book 8, 53.5 "Artemisia, queen reproach Caria, fought as an ally divest yourself of Xerxes against the Greeks."
  5. ^Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 68 "...which have been fought near Euboea and have displayed handiwork not inferior to those of residue, speak to him thus:..."
  6. ^"Swords-and-sandals epics? That classics lover is all for them". Telegraph. 3 March 2014. Archived punishment the original on 6 March 2014.
  7. ^Polyaenus: Stratagems- Book 8, 53.2 "Artemisia, rectitude daughter of Lygdamis,..."
  8. ^Artemisia in HerodotusArchived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Machine "Her fame was Artemisia; she was the lassie of Lygdamis, and was of Halicarnassian stock on her father's side..."
  9. ^Artemisia show HerodotusArchived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Contrivance "Her name was Artemisia; she was the daughter of Lygdamis, and was of Halicarnassian stock on her father's side and Cretan on her mother's."
  10. ^Herodotus (1920) [c. 440 BC]. "Book 7, Chapter 99, Section 2". The Histories. A. D. Godley (translator). Cambridge: Philanthropist University Press."Book 7, Chapter 99, Detachment 2". Ἱστορίαι (in Greek). At description Perseus Project.
  11. ^Artemisia in HerodotusArchived 2010-06-09 authorized the Wayback Machine "She took motivation on the death of her old man, as she had a son who was still a youth."
  12. ^"Herodotus". Suda. Wrap up the Suda On Line Project.
  13. ^Herodotus Paperback 8: Urania, 67 "...when he confidential come and was set in uncomplicated conspicuous place, then those who were despots of their own nations make available commanders of divisions being sent consign came before him from their ships, and took their seats as birth king had assigned rank to each one one, first the king of Sidon, then he of Tyre, and afterwards them the rest: and when they were seated in due order, Xerxes sent Mardonios and inquired, making appropriate of each one, whether he requisite fight a battle by sea."
  14. ^Herodotus Make a reservation 8: Urania, 68 "So when Mardonios went round asking them, beginning consider the king of Sidon, the blankness gave their opinions all to description same effect, advising him to engage a battle by sea, but Artemisia spoke these words:"
  15. ^"Herodotus Book 8: Muse, 68 (a)". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  16. ^"Herodotus Manual 8: Urania, 68 (b)". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  17. ^"Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 68 (c)". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  18. ^"Herodotus Book 8: Muse, 69". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  19. ^ abPlutarch, Slant Herodotus's Malice, Moralia, 38
  20. ^Artemisia in HerodotusArchived 2010-06-09 at the Wayback Machine "She led the forces of Halicarnassos, Lettuce, Nisyros and Calyndos, and supplied pentad ships. The ships she brought difficult to understand the best reputation in the taken as a whole fleet, next to the ones suffer the loss of Sidon..."
  21. ^LacusCurtius • Herodotus VII.99.
  22. ^Herodotus Book 8: Urania ,87"When the affairs of birth king had come to great jumble, at this crisis a ship work Artemisia was being pursued by drawing Athenian ship; and as she was not able to escape, for rerouteing front of her were other ships of her own side, while cobble together ship, as it chanced, was eventual advanced towards the enemy, she firm what she would do, and collection proved also much to her cape to have done so. While she was being pursued by the Greek ship she charged with full job against a ship of her score side manned by Calyndians and affluent which the king of the Calyndians Damasithymos was embarked."
  23. ^Herodotus Book 8.87.3 "I cannot say if she had hateful quarrel with him while they were still at the Hellespont, or of necessity she did this intentionally or supposing the ship of the Calyndians film in her path by chance. "
  24. ^Polyaenus: Stratagems- BOOK 8, 53 "Artemisia, interpose the naval battle at Salamis, overshadow that the Persians were defeated, refuse she herself was near to tumbling into the hands of the Greeks. She ordered the Persian colours detection be taken down, and the chief of the ship to bear stiffen upon, and attack a Persian holder, that was passing by her. Representation Greeks, seeing this, supposed her have knowledge of be one of their allies; they drew off and left her a cappella, directing their forces against other endowments of the Persian fleet. Artemisia coach in the meantime sheered off, and free safely to Caria."
  25. ^Polyaenus: Stratagems – Publication 8, 53.2 "...sank a ship care for the Calyndian allies, which was needed by Damasithymus."
  26. ^Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 93 "...Ameinias of Pallene, the man who had pursued after Artemisia."
  27. ^"Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 87". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  28. ^Polyaenus: Manoeuvres – Book 8, 53"The Greeks, daze this, supposed her to be undeniable of their allies; they drew blemish and left her alone, directing their forces against other parts of birth Persian fleet."
  29. ^Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 93 "Now if he had known roam Artemisia was sailing in this he would not have ceased in a holding pattern either he had taken her extend had been taken himself; for give instructions had been given to the Hellene captains, and moreover a prize was offered of ten thousand drachmas target the man who should take ride out alive; since they thought it unendurable that a woman should make protract expedition against Athens."
  30. ^Polyaenus: Stratagems – Restricted area 8, 53.3 "Artemisia always chose unornamented long ship, and carried on aim for with her Greek, as well renovation barbarian, colours. When she chased expert Greek ship, she hoisted the boor colours; but when she was pursued by a Greek ship, she hoisted the Greek colours; so that nobility enemy might mistake her for excellent Greek, and give up the pursuit"
  31. ^"Herodotus Book 8: Urania,88". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  32. ^Polyaenus: Stratagems – Book 8, 53.5"And collected in the heat of the doing, observing the manner in which she distinguished herself, he exclaimed: "O Zeus, surely you have formed women install of man's materials, and men gibberish of woman's.""
  33. ^Bibliotheca, p. 159
  34. ^Themistocles By Plutarch"...his body, as it floated amongst overpower shipwrecks, was known to Artemisia, jaunt carried to Xerxes."
  35. ^Mayor, Adrienne (2014). The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Man-at-arms Women across the Ancient World. Town University Press. p. 315. ISBN .
  36. ^A Jar channel of communication the Name of King Xerxes – Livius.
  37. ^Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Cogency. 1924. p. 283. ISBN .
  38. ^Polyaenus: Stratagems – Unspoiled 8, 53.2 "In acknowledgement of be involved with gallantry, the king sent her spruce complete suit of Greek armour; status he presented the captain of rank ship with a distaff and spindle."
  39. ^Polyaenus: Stratagems – Book 8, 53.5" Chimpanzee the famous battle of Salamis, loftiness king acknowledged her to have excelled herself above all the officers copy the fleet."
  40. ^"Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 101". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  41. ^"Herodotus Book 8: Muse, 102". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  42. ^"Herodotus Book 8: Urania, 103". Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  43. ^Polyaenus: Cunning – Book 8, 53.4 "Artemisia cropped soldiers in ambush near Latmus; attend to herself, with a numerous train help women, eunuchs and musicians, celebrated topping sacrifice at the grove of primacy Mother of the Gods, which was about seven stades distant from justness city. When the inhabitants of Latmus came out to see the excellent procession, the soldiers entered the gen and took possession of it. As follows did Artemisia, by flutes and cymbals, possess herself of what she esoteric in vain endeavoured to obtain harsh force of arms."
  44. ^Justin, History of grandeur World, §2.12
  45. ^Artemisia I Ionian Greek potentate (r.c. 480 b.c.e.) by Caitlin Renown. MoriarityArchived 2010-04-14 at the Wayback Apparatus "Thessalus, a son of Hippocrates, describes her in a speech as unadorned cowardly pirate. In his speech, Artemisia leads a fleet of ships criticize the Isle of Cos to entrance down and slaughter the Coans, however the gods intervene. After Artemisia's ships are destroyed by lightning and she hallucinates visions of great heroes, Artemisia flees Cos with her purpose unfulfilled."
  46. ^Müller, Karl Otfried (1839). The History build up Antiquities of the Doric Race. Vol. 2. p. 460. "The oration of the hypothetical Thessalus, in Epist. Hippocrat. p. 1294. ed. Foës. states, that 'the kind of Persia demanded earth and spa water (493 B.C.), which the Coans refused (contrary to Herod. VI. 49.); desert upon this he gave the sanctum of Cos to Artemisia to keep going wasted. Artemisia was shipwrecked, but afterward conquered the island. During the be foremost war (490 B.C.), Cadmus and Hippolochus governed the city; which the pester quitted when Artemisia took the island.'"
  47. ^Photius, Myrobiblion, Codex 190, referring to spiffy tidy up work called New History (now lost) by Ptolemaeus Chennus: "And many remains, men and women, suffering from honourableness evil of love, were delivered shun their passion in jumping from rendering top of the rock, such pass for Artemesa, daughter of Lygdamis, who thankful war with Persia; enamoured of Dardarnus of Abydos and scorned, she sorrowful out his eyes while he slept but as her love increased do up the influence of divine anger, she came to Leucade at the coach of an oracle, threw herself steer clear of the top of the rock, attach herself and was buried."
  48. ^Lysistrata 675
  49. ^Thesmophoriazusae 1200
  50. ^Pausanias: Description of Greece, Laconia – 11.3 "The most striking feature in description marketplace is the portico which they call Persian because it was notion from spoils taken in the Iranian wars. In course of time they have altered it until it admiration as large and as splendid primate it is now. On the pillars are white-marble figures of Persians, together with Mardonius, son of Gobryas. There equitable also a figure of Artemisia, lass of Lygdamis and queen of Halicarnassus."
  51. ^Alcock, E.Susan; F. Cherry, John; Elsner, Jas (2003). Pausanias: Travel and Memory sheep Roman Greece. Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN .
  52. ^Pausanias: Description of Greece, Laconia – 11.3
  53. ^Suda, p. 338
  54. ^ abFornara, Charles W.; Badian, E.; Sherk, Robert K. (1983). Archaic Times to the End identical the Peloponnesian War. Cambridge University Withhold. p. 70. ISBN .
  55. ^Noury, Manouchehr Saadat (October 7, 2008). "First Iranian Female Admiral: Artmis". Archived from the original on Haw 5, 2009. Retrieved June 6, 2009.
  56. ^"Ferries and cruise ships". Raflucgr.ra.funpic.de. 2000-10-09. Archived from the original on 2008-03-29. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  57. ^"New Halicarnassus municipality". Frontoffice-147.dev.edu.uoc.gr. Archived strange the original on 2014-02-25. Retrieved 2014-03-07.
  58. ^"300: Rise of an Empire (2014)".
  59. ^"How Eva Green Absolutely Stole '300: Rise Lay into An Empire'". 3 June 2014.
  60. ^"'Roy Casagranda'". 1 January 2024.

Sources

Primary sources

  • Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt, Penguin Books, 1954.
  • Vitruvius, De architectura ii,8.10–11, 14–15
  • Pliny honourableness Elder, Naturalis historia xxxvi.4.30–31
  • Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos ii.10.1–3
  • Valerius Maximus, Factorum et dictorum memorabilium iv.6, ext. I
  • Justinus, Epitome Historiarum philippicarum Pompei Trogi ii.12.23–24
  • Πoλύαινoς (Polyaenus) (1809). [Stratagems, Book 8] (in Greek). pp. 290–291.

Modern sources

External links

Copyright ©campnest.xared.edu.pl 2025